Problems in defining and measuring crime

Issues in characterizing and estimating wrongdoing Today we will be taking a gander at the contrast among wrongdoing and abnormality, the method of estimating wrongdoing and aberrance and the issues in question. Characterizing wrongdoing is perplexing, dependant on social, political and monetary elements. Wrongdoing is a demonstration deserving of law. On the off chance that someone oversteps the law, regardless of whether it is a genuine or minor wrongdoing, s/he will be rebuffed. Some contends that regardless of how corrupt, inexcusable, harming or hazardous a demonstration is, it's anything but a wrongdoing except if it is made such by the specialists of the State, the lawmaking body. A few sociologists contend that just those are lawbreakers who have been mediated as such by the courts, and no demonstration can be viewed as criminal under the steady gaze of and except if a court has dispensed some punishment. Not those who violate criminal laws are gotten and sentenced and numerous demonstrations that could be viewed as criminal are infrequently indicted. The types of discipline are changed, depending of earnestness of wrongdoing, for instance, detainment and so on. Abnormality is a kind of conduct that isn't acknowledged by most of the general public. It is conduct that varies from the standard and terms odd, insidious, wiped out, shameless are regularly associated with this type of conduct. This could be something as minor as wearing an inappropriate sort of garments to a gathering or as major as a homicide. Numerous degenerate demonstrations that are not acknowledged by society are not really criminal acts. Particular kind of conduct might be acknowledged by one society, yet depreciated and defamed by another. For instance, savoring liquor British society is viewed as worthy, regardless of whether it has negative effect on our general public. In any case, there are numerous societies (especially those impacted by strict convictions) that object to this conduct. In certain nations like Libya, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Morocco, Bangladesh, the Maldives, Tunisia and Sudan, the utilization of mixed drinks is prohibited. There are a few special cases where liquor can be accessible to outside sightseers however just in specific territories. Criminal and freak conduct changes here and there and time to time. Solid general assessment and changing virtues hugy affect these understandings and it gets hard to state what acts are freak/criminal and what can be viewed as typical. For instance, premature birth used to be illicit in the UK, however in 1967 it become lawful as long as 24 weeks with no time limit when there is a hazard to the womans life. Nonetheless, there are as yet against fetus removal bunches in UK that accept that premature birth isn't right, but since greater part of society concur on this result it isn't viewed as criminal act any longer. There are as yet numerous nations that spot an incentive on human life and fetus removal is unlawful there, for instance in Northern Ireland, Brazil, Malta, the Philippines, Egypt, Nigeria and some more. It is hard to draw a line among wrongdoing and abnormality. They go connected at the hip. Any wrongdoing that is submitted is an aftereffect of somebody being degenerate. A lot of freak conduct isn't deserving of law, yet can go to the consideration of a network which executes different casual controls, for example, disengaging the individuals who digress from the standard dismissed by family, companions, associates, entire network. Who has the force and option to state what is ordinary and what is freak conduct? Societies, customs, religion, ethics and convictions, incredibly impact society about what we see as worthy/inadmissible conduct. Individuals are naturally introduced to various social orders with various societies, qualities and ethics. People are impacted by these from birth and proceed to learn and adjust new qualities and ethics. On the off chance that individuals move and become individuals from an alternate society, they may need to learn new qualities and ethics. On the off chance that someone attempts a strict transformation, their ethics and qualities will change to meet their picked religions conduct code. Wrongdoing and aberrance have consistently had a major impact in our general public. Wrongdoing measurements are a significant wellspring of data, which give a knowledge into the sum and sort of wrongdoing submitted inside specific regions (both national and neighborhood). In England, wrongdoings recorded by the police have been distributed since 1876. Notwithstanding, official wrongdoing insights (as recorded by the police) just contains data with respect to the violations that are accounted for and recorded by the police, courts and jails. Already the police had a specific measure of command over which wrongdoings were recorded yet since 2002 all wrongdoing must be recorded. Every one of those wrongdoings which go unreported are known as a dull figure of wrongdoing. Covered up, unnoticed and overlooked violations have a place with this classification and all these are rejected from authentic measurements. Wrongdoings happening inside a family or including kids are the most widely r ecognized sorts of unreported violations. Individuals may not report wrongdoing for various reasons, for instance, absence of trust in the police or deciding to manage the circumstance by and by. It has been recommended that just around fifteen percent of wrongdoing is accounted for to the police. Thus obviously insights don't quantify and give an away from of complete wrongdoing, accordingly they are not solid. There are different issues in looking at measurements after some time including: evolving enactment; changing translation of the law by the legal executive; and the changing ethics and more noteworthy affectability of the overall population. To finish up, wrongdoing alludes to practices that are an infringement of the criminal law, however the law is under continually under survey. Changes in police rehearses, needs, legislative issues, law and what our meaning of what comprises a wrongdoing, dramatically affect measurements. Despite the fact that the exactness of gathered wrongdoing measurements are regularly addressed, they despite everything furnish us with knowledge, keeping people in general, the media and different gatherings educated about the issue of wrongdoing. Regardless of whether they don't speak to our experience of wrongdoing, they permit us to examine the regularly changing nature of wrongdoing and abnormality. List of sources M. Haralambos M. Holborn (2008) Sociology Themes and Perspectives J. Muncie and E. McLaughlin (2001) The Problem of Crime David W. Jones (2008) Understanding Criminal Behavior.

Ethical or Unethical Argument Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Moral or Unethical Argument - Essay Example Moral contentions depend on proof or reality which can be demonstrated and can't be tested by various individuals. The proof or reality is with the end goal that has been experimentally demonstrated or is a reality dependent on recorded occasions that can't be addressed. In any case, contentions dependent on negligible feeling are those that depend on a person’s individual view of things and require singular investigation. Exacting your feeling on others or attempting to form their conclusion as indicated by yours without giving realities or reasons is viewed as unscrupulous (Vaughn, pp. 236-237). A few contentions contain sound thinking or rationale and consider others perspective inside them before reaching to a determination. These contentions depend on rationale, certainty, and contain evidence of thinking as opposed to depending upon a solitary person’s judgment. Deceptive contentions don't consider the perspective or impression of others and need sound thinking. They depend on minor conclusion or a solitary person’s judgment. They might be founded on derivations or forecasts and may likewise convey the components of partiality and inclinations. More often than not, deceptive methods of contention cause mischief to a specific reason without due explanation and are worried about the most paltry ideas (Stevenson, pg. 15). Hitler’s contention against the Jews and the contention for reproducing a â€Å"better race† was a contention dependent on his own sentiment and partialities. Different contentions which generalization certain religions, races, ethnicities, and individuals, all in all, are additionally viewed as exploitative contentions as they depend on simple conclusion instead of target actuality which are non-refutable (Stevenson, pg. 22). So as to contend in a moral way, an individual must consider the purpose behind which they are contending. The motivation behind the contention or the result that needs to be accomplished must be to such an extent that must not make undue mischief anybody and must not hurt anyone’s convictions without due explanation.

Traditional Medicine Samples for Students †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Talk about the Traditional or Alternative Medicine. Answer: In the ongoing human services framework in Australia, Europe and North America, customary medication (TM) is exceptionally grasped, in any case, is likewise alluding to Complementary and elective medication (CAM). There are alluring highlights of the TM that incorporates social acknowledgment, more noteworthy availability in various pieces of the world and require lesser innovation and minimal effort. Be that as it may, in created nations, CAM is being utilized for the anticipation of sickness and in the support of ailment separated from traditional consideration for intense and interminable wellbeing conditions. CAM is a comprehensive methodology that incorporates the brain, body and soul for the treatment of the individual being less obtrusive when contrasted with regular practices (Mehta, 2012). In Australia, it is easing back consolidating into the standard, notwithstanding, stays a dubious point. Thusly, the accompanying exposition talks about the stars, cons of CAM and study th rough a writing search that incorporates 12 articles from the year 2012 to 2017. In the present human services framework, CAM has picked up notoriety where it has mainstreamed the regular and conventional treatment. The geniuses of this treatment make it famous and broadly well known when contrasted with the conventional medication approach utilized in the new social insurance framework. In this area, the benefits of CAM are being talked about rather than the conventional medication approach. This treatment is stressed all in all body care, which is not quite the same as the ordinary medication being an all encompassing methodology. There is entire body treatment where the developing pattern isn't just towards the physical body, yet in addition towards the passionate and otherworldly wellbeing of the patient (Harris et al., 2012). As per Wardle, Lui Adams, (2012), there is a developing enthusiasm for the CAM, as it is a comprehensive methodology and on rise. Individual consideration is another advantage of the elective medication as it gives individual considerat ion. The supporters who follow this treatment center around the physical wellbeing, yet in addition the psychological and social wellbeing parts of the ailment influencing a person. This factor gives more advantageous spotlight on the reasons for the sicknesses rather that bring about the lopsided characteristics in the body initially (Wu et al., 2014). CAM has one more bit of leeway that it centers around the anticipation. The conventional medication gives intercession after the sickness beginning; in any case, elective medication center around anticipation of the malady before it happens notwithstanding the consideration conveyance (Hawk, Ndetan Evans, 2012). After the writing search, I found that there are wide utilizations of CAM for the treatment of ailments running from emotional wellness issues like state of mind issue to deadly illnesses like disease. As indicated by Libby, Pilver Desai, (2013) the investigation led portrayed the utilization of CAM in the treatment of enthusiastic and mental issues in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) people. Information was gathered from the 599 people with PSTD and unmistakable investigations indicated 15 situations where CAM was utilized for treatment. CAM was utilized as an option in contrast to the traditional medication in the emotional wellness care. In another deliberate substance investigation, as per Shim, (2015) there are two CAM mediations home grown medication and needle therapy that are well known in U.S. what's more, Japan. The outcomes demonstrated that natural medication is coordinated into the standard clinical framework in Japan and least in America. Needle therapy is less generally polished in America, Japan, and home grown medication being generally good in Japan and least in America. As per Thomson et al., (2012) CAM is across the board and profoundly predominant in Australia among the grown-up populace. The aftereffects of the cross-sectional investigation indicated that CAM is profoundly well known in Australia, in any case, individuals doesn't look for guidance from their doctors when utilizing CAM that require further thought. As per Kang et al., (2012) there is increment in CAM use among bosom malignant growth patients in Korea. Around 57.4% of patients were accounted for to utilize this treatment that included exercise treatment and utilization of nutrients and minerals that supported their resistant framework, advanced wellbeing and forestalled repeat. In another investigation through organized meetings, it demonstrated that they utilized CAM among malignancy patients as it helped them for food of solidarity and picked up capacity to perform exercises. In a cross-sectional, concentrate through meeting managed survey directed by Jazieh et al., (2012) the outcomes demonstrated that reciprocal treatments are exceptionally pervasive in Saudi Arabia with mediations that show strict foundation and solid social convictions when individuals are experiencing hazardous ailments. CAM is likewise utilized in provocative entrail ailment (IBD) among the patients who experienced antagonistic reactions of ordinary meds . Elective medication is likewise utilized in private palliative consideration among German patients with cutting edge malignancy as petition and enhancements as concentrated by Paul et al., (2013). Comparative investigation led by Weizman et al., (2012) likewise indicated that CAM is common among the IBD patients and assists with decreasing the unfriendly impacts of the regular medications. The above essential examinations directed on CAM in various nations forever compromising sicknesses portrays that CAM is an all encompassing methodology and feasible alternative to fix issues and its incorporation in the present social insurance framework. In spite of the fact that, CAM is picking up notoriety in the present social insurance framework, there are difficulties confronted that goes about as hindrances in the way of its reconciliation into the countrys clinical and medicinal services framework. This is shortage of proof based practice and absence of research in regards to the CAM that are experimentally archived with inflexible clinical preliminaries. In spite of the fact that, CAM are gainful, there is absence of clinical preliminaries with obscure long and momentary dangers related with its organization. There is additionally absence of proof based practice to affirm that CAM organization rules consent to the Australian norms and can possibly incorporate into the present medicinal services framework (Reddy, Grossman Rogers, 2013). There is constrained logical research seeing CAM when contrasted with customary clinical treatment where the proof is restricted and numerous inquiries left unanswered. A few examinations are i n progress and research is as yet going on. There is a major disarray between the words protected and characteristic the same number of home grown prescriptions and dietary enhancements fall under CAM that are confused as regular. This raises a warning and the makers make phenomenal cases that the elective medication items contain mystery fixings and have wonder fixes (Ekor, 2014). Another huge test is whether the CAM treatment is compelling, safe contains normalized fixings and managed. Practically 50% of the social insurance proficient don't know about the correlative practices and exceptionally uncover the hindrances of this methodology contrasted with customary medication (Koithan et al., 2012). Another huge burden of elective treatments is the potential risky cooperations and symptoms. This methodology is reliant upon the ailments and the illnesses the individual may be experiencing and can now and again venture antagonistic reactions (Epstein Krasner, 2013). These elective meds are not deductively tried and there is no guideline by the administration organizations. The Food and Drug Administration and National Institutes of Health don't give guideline rules to elective medication and still require logical demonstrating with exacting quality check and testing conventions. There is no such normalization of the drugs utilized in elective medication treatment s, as there is differing degrees of reactions and results in treating the treatment. As indicated by Tautz et al., (2012) in a cross-sectional investigation, CAM was utilized in bosom malignant growth, in any case, there was less consistence to CAM and hesitant to start this training in the standard oncology care. This is the explanation CAM is as yet an all encompassing methodology and absence of preparing and information about the CAM choices for the patients experiencing hazardous ailments. This is the fundamental con of CAM that controls them from looking for this medication treatment. The distinctions in extraction process prompts compound fluctuations that can prompt shifting degrees of pharmacological exercises and instruments that can cause impedances with the recommended meds. As there is absence of proof based research and logical verification, it might set aside a more drawn out effort for a person to look for master supposition on the impact of the elective meds. This can bring about the movement of the ailment like malignant growth that remaining parts undiscovered until the advantages are totally known. This absence of research and fluctuation in the treatment alternatives makes it hard for the reciprocal treatments to incorporate in the flow proof based social insurance framework (Frawley et al., 2013). From the above conversation, it is clear that the customary or elective medication treatments can possibly coordinate into the present human services framework, despite the fact that has certain cons and constraints. The fundamental contention in this conversation was whether the conventional and elective medication can give the individual and patient-focused consideration treatment and their decisions on how the reconciliation should occur. There are different advantages of CAM like torment the board, malignant growth and IBD treatment and emotional wellness. Elective meds can possibly soothe torment when contrasted with customary treatment alternatives. So also, elective treatments in conjugation with chemotherapy help in expanding the endurance rates and lessen potential symptoms. It likewise assists with reducing the unfavorable symptoms of the malignant growth that are experienced by the patients because of recommended prescriptions. Elective medication treatments are more affor dable when contrasted with

Paper On The Public Hotspots Offered By AT&T In America - 825 Words

Paper On The Public Hotspots Offered By AT&T In America (Research Paper Sample) Content: ATT Public Hot Spots[Name here][Institution][Lecturer Name Here][Date Here]Table of ContentContent PageIntroduction ... 3ATT . 3Services Provided ... 4Comparison with Verizon .. 5Similarities and differences ... 6Conclusion 7Bibliography . 8IntroductionDemand and technological capabilities have produced the current accessibility levels of information, particularly through mobile communication. Public hot spots or Wi-Fi connections as they are popularly known are a good example of mobile technology that offers flexible and adequate connection to the internet. This service (public hot spots) is now offered by almost all major cellular providers in an attempt to increase their customer base through convenience and efficiency, this report highlights this technology with a keen eye on one service provider ATT with a brief comparison with Verizon, another service provider.[Chris Cherie 2016] ATTFrom the get go, ATT seems to have se amlessly integrated its services across all mobile platforms, incorporating applications and services with mobile systems. For one, its the largest wireless network provider which includes public hotspots (Wi-Fi), an endeavour that is boosted by its usability numbers that have grown over 8000 percent over the past few years. Moreover, the current demand for mobile technology has necessitated the current demand that has led ATT to incorporate automatic authentication of devices using its public hot spots, this makes it easier to access broadband connection despite the location.[ATT. The ATT Wireless Network. 2017] As of recent studies, ATT offers more than 40,000 hotspots across the United States and a further 215,000 global connections through roaming agreements. This accessibility and availability have again led to its increased users numbers that range in the millions, for instance, 246.8 million in 2011 in the US only. Furthermore, to supplement this application special hot zone have been established in major cities such as San Francisco and Chicago. Moreover, this hot zones will offer free services so long as the customers qualify for their wireless data through their initiatives of LaptopConnect or ATT high-speed connection.[Accuris networks. ATT Roaming Wi-Fi Hub. 2015. Connecting networks] The diagram below highlights ATT Wi-Fi hot spots across the United States.Fig: ATT Public Hot spots (Courtesy ATT 2017)From the diagram above, its easy to note a common trend, where the density of the connection is determined by the number of active users i.e. the demand.Services ProvidedCustomers can access the different public hot spots based on the plan they are subscribed to, this offers different options, which again determine the data transferred. 1 ATT Wi-Fi basic A basic facility that offers access to all users so long as they subscribe to ATT wireless or internet connections. This category caters for all customers, providing a basic connection across all its public hotspots, however, with limited data options. 2 High Speed Internet An elite user whose download speeds range between 3.1 to 6.0 Mbps. These customers acquire unlimited access to all hot spots provided by the company. 3 LaptopConnect Also serves as an elite user having an unlimited access to public hotspots, so long as the device in use is LaptopConnect enabled. 4 Wi-Fi on the Spot Provides an extended range of services that is close to high-speed internet, however, an extra charge is required (approximately, 3.99 to 7.99 USD).[ATT. ATT Wi-Fi Hot Spot locations. 2017. ATT maps] Comparison with VerizonA close competitor to ATT, Verizon offers similar services, however, the plans, especially for mobile and public hot spots, vary greatly with those of ATT. For instance, while ATT has a wider coverage than Verizon it seems to lag behind in terms of the plans that it offers through free Wi-Fi connections. Consider this, four different plans incorporate free hot spots connectio n as compared to ATTs one (Wi-Fi basic). In essence, any customer who subscribes to the New Verizon plan, Verizon plan, more everything plan and smartphones plans ($40, $50 and $70) will gain instant and free access to all available Verizon hot spots. Nevertheless, a detailed analysis of the two providers produces the following comparison outcomes:[Colon Segan. The Best Mobile Hotspots of 2017. 2017. PC magazine] [Verizon. Mobile hot spots FAQs. 2017. Verizon wireless] Similarities and DifferencesSimilarities Differences Deployment density is based on popularity i.e. more widespread in cities and metropolitan areas ATT Verizon

Comparing Machiavelli And The Prince - 902 Words

Dave Licause European History Machiavelli and the Prince Machiavelli is one of the greatest and most widely recognized humanist authors. Machiavelli received a classic middle class renaissance humanist education. The Prince most apparent departure from the humanist narrative is the separation of politics and ethics. Machiavelli, in the Prince, creates the first modern political treatise. Machiavelli had an interest to practically deal with the creation of a new government in Florence by the Medici’s, following the fall of the Florentine republic. Machiavelli saw the need for a unified Italy, one that could resist the encroachment of other empires onto Italian soil. Machiavelli also rooted his treatise in concrete examples from recent†¦show more content†¦The intense political pressures of the time led to widespread violence, corruption, and strife. Machiavelli lived through multiple French invasions of Italy, and was intimately involved in Florentine political life. He served as a chancello r in the Florentine government from 1497 to 1512. He served diplomatic missions where he became involved with other political leaders of the time. However, in 1512 the Medici’s rose to power, ending the republic and Machiavelli’s political career. The Prince was directly influenced by Machiavelli’s desire to reconcile with the Medici to once again enter the Florentine political sphere. With The Prince, Machiavelli created a new, modern political treatise. He made sure to differentiate his ideas from earlier Humanist political works. He mainly did so through his use of concrete, contemporary examples as the root of his argument. This was a less theoretical approach than political theories before it. Modernist intellectuals used concepts of ideal states to justify political actions, but Machiavelli argued it was through the shrewdness of its leader that a nation state could survive. The most prominent example that Machiavelli uses is Caesar Borgia. He had been involved with Louis VII of France who arranged for Borgia’s rise to power in Rome. He described Borgia, despite losing his control of Rome, as having, â€Å"taken

Essay Analyzing PuddNhead Wilson - 881 Words

Anthony Spinthourakis Due: 9/7/12 APUS/Mr. Donovan Pudd’nhead Wilson Essay In literature, slavery and the African American race are often analyzed and interpreted by numerous authors. Mark Twain reveals numerous hitches and aspects of society’s view towards different races throughout many of his novels. In Pudd’nhead Wilson Twain describes the status of African Americans in society, as well as how they are portrayed or believed to act in the eyes of other townsfolk. The portrayal of Roxy and the status of Tom and Chambers both help Twain show the wrongs of the†¦show more content†¦Dawson’s Landing sees no difference in someone that is 100% black compared to someone that is 3% black. Tom, being the son of the high ranking Driscoll family, lives an easy and privileged life in Dawson’s Landing. Mark Twain uses these three characters to show that status in society was not obtained by a person’s accomplishments or personality, but rather their lineage and race, as seen with Roxy and Chambers. Throughout Pudd’nh ead Wilson the primary characteristics of the different races are shown by Mark Twain. Twain’s constant use of black dialect showcases that many believed that blacks were uneducated fools who were only good at working in the fields. For example, Roxy says â€Å"Bofe de same age, sir-five months. Bawn de fust o’ Feb’uary† (Twain 9), which showcases her lack of grammar and overall speaking quality. The use of the black dialect throughout the novel by the African Americans is probably due to the fact that they could not attend school, as many of them were forced to work in the fields all day by their masters. After being switched with Chambers, the once proper and upper class Tom was now speaking black dialect due to his time spent with Roxy and other African Americans. Also, blacks were known for being devious and trying to steal from their masters or other upper-class citizens. For example,Show MoreRelatedCriticism And Analysis Of Puddn Head Wilson 800 W ords   |  4 Pages Criticism and Analysis of Puddn’head Wilson In American history, we have good authors, great authors and some bad. One of the most famous authors and probably the greatest that everyone has heard of is Mark Twain. Twain was an American author and humorist in American Literature. Twain was born in Florida, Missouri, on November 30, 1835. In his first writing, he adopted his pen-name from a well-known call of the man sounding the river in shallow places. In 1861 he went to Carson City, Nevada,Read MoreAmerican Literature11652 Words   |  47 Pagesemotion-provoking humorous irony storytelling emphasized autobiographical essays Effect: ï‚ · too soon to tell Historical Context: ï‚ · ï‚ · people beginning a new century and a new millennium media culture interprets values Analyzing Poetry: Poetry Tips Analyzing Poetry What is poetry? How is it analyzed? What are the elements of poetry? Good questions! This web page provides a quick overview of poetry analysis. Please note that this handout discusses the basics of poetry; there is much more

Scope of Strategic Marketing Essay Example For Students

Scope of Strategic Marketing Essay Chapter 1 Scope of strategic marketing Marketing is a philosophy that leads to the process by which organizations, groups and individuals obtain what they need and want by identifying value, providing it, communicating it and delivering it to others. The core concepts of marketing are customers’ needs, wants and values; products, exchange, communications and relationships. Marketing is strategically concerned with the direction and scope of the long-term activities performed by the organization to obtain a competitive advantage. The organization applies its resources within a changing environment to satisfy customer needs while meeting stakeholder expectations. Implied in this view of strategic marketing is the requirement to develop a strategy to cope with competitors, identify market opportunities, develop and commercialize new products and services, allocate resources among marketing activities and design an appropriate organizational structure to ensure the performance desired is achieved. There is no unique strategy that succeeds for all organizations in all situations. In thinking strategically about marketing many factors must be considered: the extent of product diversity and geographic coverage in the organization; the number of market segments served, marketing channels used, the role of branding, the level of marketing effort, and the role of quality. It is also necessary to consider the organization’s approach to new product development, in particular, its position as a technology leader or follower, the extent of innovation, the organization’s cost position and pricing policy, and its relationship to customers, competitors, suppliers and partners. The challenge of strategic marketing is, therefore, to manage marketing complexity, customer and stakeholder expectations and to reconcile the in? uences of a changing environment in the context of a set of resource capabilities. It is also necessary to create strategic opportunities and to manage the concomitant changes required within the organization. In this world of marketing, organizations seek to maximize returns to shareholders by creating a competitive advantage in identifying, providing, communicating and delivering value to customers, broadly de? ed, and in the process developing long-term mutually satisfying relationships with those customers. Strategic Marketing Understanding marketing – antecedents The fundamental management issue in marketing is to determine a superior value position from the customer’s perspective and to ensure that, by developing a consensus throughout the organization, value is provided, communicated and delivered to the customer grou p. The core concepts of marketing are needs, wants and demands which directly affect the identi? cation and selection of relevant customer values re? cted in products, services and ideas that the organization provides, communicates and delivers in the form of exchanges to build long-term satisfactory relationships with customers (Figure 1. 1). Needs are the internal in? uences which prompt behaviour, e. g. biological needs refer to a person’s requirements for food, air and shelter while social needs refer to issues such as security, personal grati? cation and prestige. Wants are culture bound and may be satis? ed using a number of technologies, e. g. a teenager may listen to music on one of the rock radio stations or on DVDs played on a computer. Demand refers to the ability and willingness of a customer to buy a particular product or service which satis? es the want and the more latent need. A student may want a BMW but can afford only a bicycle. The organization may set out from the start or be established with those objectives or, more likely, as a result of trial and error and experience, the organization evolves into a position over time of being the desired source of value. The core concepts of marketing may be decomposed into a number of basic components: Identify and select the customer value Needs Wants Demands Provide, communicate and deliver customer value Products, services and ideas Exchange of values and relationship building Customers Figure Core concepts of marketing Scope of strategic marketing Provide the value – product planning – packaging – branding – pricing Communicate the value – advertising – personal selling – direct marketing – sales promotion Deliver the value – channels of distribution – logistics – servicing Successful organizations recognize value positions and ensure that learning occurs throughout the organization as a result of discovering the value position. Choosing the value position is one of the most important strategic decisions facing the organization. Once chosen, it the task of management to ensure that everyone in the organization directly contributes to delivering the chosen value. Marketing and sales orientations A sales emphasis is very different from a marketing emphasis in the organization. Four important areas where they differ separate the two approaches: organizational objectives, orientation, attitudes to segmentation and the perceived task facing marketing in the organization (Kotler 2002). A sales emphasis results in objectives which are aimed at increasing current sales to meet quotas and to derive commissions and bonuses. Little discrimination is made between products or customers in terms of pro? ts unless these differences are written into the incentives. In contrast, objectives with a marketing emphasis take pro? ts into account. Marketing objectives include an explicit consideration of product mixes, customer groups and different communications and ways of reaching the market in attempting to achieve pro? table sales and market shares at acceptable levels of risk. The selling and marketing orientations produce very different emphases in the organization. A selling orientation predominantly re? ects a production approach whereby something is produced and the task is to sell it thereby Strategic Marketing Market orientation Market research Product research and development Production Sales orientation Communications Sales Technology orientation Figure Alternative business orientation of the ? rm increasing consumption (Figure 1. 2). A focus on sales means a focus on individual customers rather than market segments or market classes. Such organizations are very knowledgeable about individual accounts and the variables which in? uence speci? c sales transactions but they are less interested in developing an approach to an entire segment of similar needs and wants in the market. A technology orientation is similar to a sales orientation except that the organization also engages in product research and development (Figure 1. 2). A marketing approach attempts to determine ways of offering superior value to the more pro? table segments without damaging individual customer relationships. A marketing approach re? cts an integrated approach based on research and feedback. Customer needs are ? rst evaluated through market research, an integrated marketing effort is developed to satisfy customers so that the organization achieves its goals, especially those affecting shareholders. This is a customer orientation and contrasts very bluntly with a narrow competitor orientation based on sales in which the organization by capit alizing on the weaknesses of vulnerable competitors or by removing its own competitive weaknesses attempts to obtain high sales and long-run pro? s (Figure 1. 3). In many situations marketing evaluates itself and presents its case to senior managers of the organization based on sales, ef? ciency or, worst of all, internal awards, not marketplace outcomes or ? nancial success. Senior managers deal with issues that involve the allocation of resources and how such allocation affects the return on investment. These hurdle rates are calculated differently from one organization to another but they need to be understood for a marketing programme to be effective and accepted. In a business world ominated by ? nancial considerations the ability of the organization to produce award-winning marketing programmes or attractive but fuzzy images in TV commercials is not of much value. Traditional marketing thinking assumes that the organization is in complete control of the marketplace, whereas in teraction and market integration are required. Scope of strategic marketing Customer orientation Identify needs and wants of potential customers Provide and communicate values to match customer needs Satisfied customers Long-run profits Competitor orientation Capitalize on weaknesses of vulnerable competitors Remove own weaknesses Win market position from competitors Attract customers from competitors Minimize loss of customers to competitors High sales Defend market position Source : Adapted from Alfred, R. Oxfenfeldt and William L. Moore (1983): ‘Customer or competitor: which guideline for marketing? ’ in Stewart Henderson Britt, Harper W. Boyd, Robert T. Davis and Jean Claude Larreche (eds), Marketing Management and Administrative Action, New York: McGraw-Hill. Figure Customer and competitor orientation in the organization Strategic marketing concept Marketing has been de? ned as the management function responsible for identifying, anticipating and satisfying customer requirements pro? tably. Marketing is, therefore, both a philosophy and a set of techniques which address such matters as research, product design and development, pricing, packaging, sales and sales promotion, advertising, public relations, distribution and after-sales service. These activities de? ne the broad scope of marketing and their balanced integration within a marketing plan is known as the marketing mix. A modi? cation of a de? ition of marketing by Doyle (2000) suggests that marketing is the management process that seeks to maximize returns to shareholders by creating a competitive advantage in providing, communicating and delivering value to customers thereby developing a long-term relationship with them. This de? nition clearly de? nes the objectives of marketing and how its performance should be evaluated. The speci? c cont ribution of marketing in the organization lies in the formulation of strategies to choose the right customer, build relationships of trust with them and create a competitive advantage (Doyle 2000, p. 35). A marketing strategy consists of an internally integrated but externally focused set of choices about how the organization addresses its customers in the context of a competitive environment. A strategy has ? ve elements: it deals with where the organization plans to be active; how it will get there; how it will succeed in the marketplace; what the speed and sequence of moves will be; and how the organization will obtain pro? ts (Hambrick and Fredrickson 2001, p. 50). The organization must identify the problem that its customers use its products and services to solve. It is also necessary to identify the bene? ts customers seek from using a product or service available in the market. A market consists Strategic Marketing of all the potential customers who share a particular need or want who might be willing and able to engage in exchange to satisfy that need or want. A marketing orientation helps to de? ne the organization’s business. Marketing is concerned with problem solving and customer bene? ts. The organization must be able to answer the following questions: What is the problem customers are trying to solve? What bene? ts do customers seek? How well does the organization’s product solve this problem and provide these bene? ts? A statement that the organization is in the movie business is not very useful. An organization is not in the movie business because that says nothing about customer needs. Some movie organizations assumed they were in the movie business when the entertainment business left them behind! Marketing is a philosophy that encourages the organization to ensure that the needs and wants of customers in selected target markets are re? cted in all its actions and activities while recognizing constraints imposed by society. This marketing concept ? rst received formal recognition in 1952 by one of its leading exponents, the General Electric Organization – the marketing concept: . . . introduces the marketing man at the beginning rather than at the end of the production cycle and integrates marketing into each phase of business. . . . marketing establishes . . . f or the engineer, the design and manufacturing man, what the customer wants in a given product, what price he is willing to pay and where and when it will be wanted. Marketing will have authority in product planning, production scheduling and inventory control, as well as in sales distribution or servicing of the product (General Electric Organization, New York, 1952, Annual Report, p. 21). Three aspects of this statement are interesting: the customer orientation; the pro? t orientation; and the emphasis on integrated organization effort. These three aspects are fundamental to the adoption of the marketing concept. Marketing means, therefore, being oriented to the needs of customers rather than emphasizing what is convenient to produce. Effective marketing requires that the organization analyses the needs that its products are supposed to satisfy. Customers do not buy ‘coffee’; they buy a warm stimulating drink or a unique caf? experience if it is Starbucks. Likewise, customers do not buy sisal; e they buy a material to make baling rope to tie things together or ? bre to serve as backing for a ? oor covering. The organization should realize that many alternative products may satisfy the needs identi? ed; there usually are many substitutes – for coffee include tea, cocoa, alcohol or soft drinks and for sisal include polypropylene ? re or polythene sheeting. The real lesson of a marketing philosophy is that better performing organizations recognize the basic and enduring nature of the customer needs they Scope of strategic marketing are attempting to satisfy. It is the technology of want satisfaction which is transitory (Anderson 1982, p. 23). The products and services used to satisfy customer nee ds and wants change constantly. The adoption of a marketing philosophy confers speci? c authority and responsibility within the organization in regard to the provision, communication and delivery of customer value. Marketing is concerned with all parts of the organization; it is more than a set of tools, it is an orientation which pervades the thinking of the organization as a whole. Internal marketing In addition to equipping the organization to cope with the outside world of customers and competitors, it is also necessary to train and motivate all staff within the organization to provide the appropriate level of service to customers. Internal marketing is very closely related to human resource management and the way in which the organization develops its own distinctive corporate culture. Public Health Nursing ( Phn ) EssayA fundamental service provided by the business system leader is to encourage and persuade other organizations in the business system to complete the full value mix for customers by attracting ‘follower’ or ‘imitator’ organizations and thereby prevent them from developing other emerging business systems. The multitude of decisions in the business system must complement each other to maximize their overall positive impact on value. Within this framework the organization must decide its overall product–market business system strategy which has two elements – decisions on product–market segments and decisions on positions to adopt within the business system itself Scope of strategic marketing Product? market and business system strategies Product? market segments Segment 1 Segment n Concentrate on key market segments Business system Production/operations Distribution Sales Concentrate on key business stages Service Customer Figure Generic product–market and business system strategies (Figure 1. 6). The organization’s resource base enables it to decide the appropriate positions on which to focus in the business system. Decisions regarding the relevant product–market segment to serve are discussed in Chapter 3 while decisions regarding the appropriate position in the business system to select are examined in Chapter 6. Sources of marketing advantage Sources of marketing advantage are reputation, brands, tangible assets, knowledge, customer service and people. To be worthwhile the marketing advantage must be sustainable. It must, therefore, be tangible, measurable and capable of providing competitive protection for some time. An illusory marketing advantage is one that is easily matched by competitors. The organization’s marketing advantage depends on how well it chooses its strategy: Concentrating on selected market segments. Offering differentiated products. Using alternative distribution channels. Using different manufacturing processes to allow higher quality at lower prices. Superior skills and resources, taken together, represent the ability of the organization to do more and better than its competitors. Superior skills are the distinctive capabilities of people in the organization that distinguish Strategic Marketing hem from people in competing organizations, e. g. superior marketing skills that lead to fewer product failures in the marketplace or superior selling and distribution skills which lead to fewer returns of unwanted products and improved customer satisfaction. Organizational resources and marketing capabilities Organizations are endowed with different amounts and types of resour ces and capabilities, which allow them to compete in different ways. Organizations which are better endowed have lower average costs than competitors and can provide products and services at lower cost or provide greater customer value. These resources are dif? cult to transfer among organizations because of transaction costs and because the assets may contain tacit knowledge (Teece et al. 1996, p. 15). Such resources and core capabilities of the organization, particularly those which involve collective learning and are knowledge based, are enhanced as they are applied (Prahalad and Hamel 1990). Resources and capabilities which are distinctive and superior, relative to those of rivals, may become the basis for competitive advantage if they are matched appropriately to market opportunities (Thompson Jr. nd Strickland 1996, pp. 94–5). These resources may, therefore, provide both the basis and direction for the growth of the organization itself, i. e. there may be a natural trajectory embedded in a organization’s knowledge base (Peteraf 1993, p. 182). Hence, the importance of studying the organization itself when attempting to predict its likely performance. Resources and capabilities determine the organi zation’s long-run strategy and are the primary source of pro? t. In an environment which is changing rapidly and where consumer tastes and preferences are volatile and myriad, a de? ition of the business in terms of what the organization is capable of doing may offer a more durable basis for strategy than a traditional de? nition, based solely on needs and wants of consumers. De? ning markets too broadly is of little help to the organization that cannot easily develop the capabilities to serve such a broad market. The organization’s ability to earn pro? ts depends on two factors: the success of the organization in establishing competitive advantage over rivals; and the attractiveness of the industry in which the organization competes. As was seen above, the two sources of competitive advantage are: the ability of the organization to reduce costs; and its ability to differentiate itself in ways that are important to customers. The ability to establish a cost advantage requires the possession of scaleef? cient plants, access to low-cost raw materials or labour and superior Scope of strategic marketing Relative value branding product/service technology marketing networks Relative costs scale economies process technology access to low-cost resources Market power firm size financial resources market share Barriers to entry branding price power patents Competitive advantage Profits Industry attractiveness Figure In? uence of resources on the pro? tability of the ? rm process technology. Differentiation advantages derive from brand reputation, proprietary and patented technology and an extensive marketing network covering distribution, sales and services. The attractiveness of an industry depends on the power the organization can exert over customers, rivals and others in the business system, which derives from the existence of market entry barriers. Market entry barriers are based on brands, patents, price and the power of competitive retaliation. These are resources which are accumulated slowly over time and a new entrant can only obtain at disproportionate expense (Grant 1991, p. 115). Other sources of market power such as price-setting abilities depend on market share which is a consequence of cost ef? ciency, organization size and ? nancial resources. Grant (1991) has integrated these ideas in a way which serves as a very convenient summary of this discussion (Figure 1. 7). Strategic marketing effectiveness Marketing’s role in strategic planning for the organization means identifying the optimal long-term positions that will ensure customer satisfaction and support. These optimal positions are determined largely by fundamental changes in demographic, economic, social and political factors (Anderson 1982, p. 24). Thus, strategic positioning is more likely to be guided by longterm demographic and socioeconomic research than by surveys of consumer attitudes, the hallmark of the market-driven organization. Value in marketing is a combination of product or service quality, reasonable or acceptable prices and responsive service. It is noteworthy that marketing value combines high quality with acceptable prices. It is not low quality products at low prices or high quality at high prices. Value in marketing means delivering on a whole range of promises to the customer. Strategic Marketing Marketing effectiveness is not necessarily revealed by current marketing performance. Good results and growing sales may be due to the organization being in the right place at the right time rather than having effective marketing management. This is frequently the situation during the entrepreneurial phase of an organization’s growth and development. The innovator frequently has considerable discretion in the market. At this stage the driving force is entrepreneurship rather than marketing. With acceptance of the product or service in the market and with the rise in competition which normally accompanies the acceptance of a new product or service, performance becomes more marketing-dependent. In a competitive environment, especially where customers have learned how to respond to various offerings, the situation changes. Improvements in marketing in the organization might improve results while another organization might have poor results in spite of excellent marketing planning. It depends on how well the organization matches its own resources against those of the competition to attract and hold the loyalty of customers. The marketing effectiveness of the organization in serving customers in the face of existing and potential competition is re? ected in the degree to which it exhibits ? ve major attributes of a marketing orientation: demonstrated customer philosophy integrated marketing orientation possesses adequate marketing information adopts a strategic orientation experiences a high level of operational ef? ciency. The performance of the organization on these individual attributes may be used to indicate which elements of effective marketing action need most attention. It should be recognized, however, that this evaluation provides general information only but has the merit of obtaining an approximate measure of the orientation of the organization. Key marketing success factors The organization attempts to convert skills and resources into superior market positions and thereby meet performance objectives. A knowledge of the key marketing success factors is essential to enable the organization to invest in markets and marketing to ensure performance objectives are attained. By identifying the key success factors the organization can dentify ways of obtaining the greatest improvement in performance for the least expenditure. The key success factors of any business are the skills and resources which exert Scope of strategic marketing the highest degree of leverage on market positions and future performance. Having identi? ed them, the organization attempts to selectively allocate resources towards these sources of leverage. The drivers of market posi tion advantage are the high leverage skills and resources that contribute most to lowering costs to or creating value for customers. Marketing focus on customers Marketing means identifying values desired by customers, providing them in some way, communicating these values to customer groups and delivering the value. Customer values refer to those bene? ts focused on solving customer problems and not merely on the products and services themselves. The focus is on the customer and on solving problems faced by the customer. This is an integrated longer-term view of marketing (Figure 1. 8). Seeking value from the customer’s perspective means building a long-term mutually pro? table relationship with customers instead of trying to maximize pro? s on each transaction. An emphasis on relationships rather than individual transactions focuses on the customer as the pro? t centre, not the product. It also means that attracting new customers is an intermediate objective in the process of maintaining and cultivating an existing customer base. This interactive approach views marketing as a continuous relationship with customers in contrast to the more traditional and almost adversarial view which is short term and focused on immediate sales. The ? rst sale to a customer is often very dif? cult, costs a lot and results in little or no pro? t. With a strong continuing relationship the customer becomes more pro? table. Such long-term relationships are established through the exchange of information, products, services and social contacts. In this way the organization–customer relationship is commercialized. The fundamental issue is to understand the customer’s perception of value and to determine a superior value position from this perspective and to ensure Identify and select customer value Integrated marketing effort Provide the value Communicate the value Deliver the value Customer satisfaction Achieve organizational goals Figure Integrated marketing orientation Strategic Marketing that, by developing a consensus throughout the organization, that value is provided and communicated to the customer group in selected markets. The role of marketing in the business system is: To understand the customer’s perception of value – identify the value the organization expects to provide. To determine a superior value position for the organization – provide the value expected. To determine the appropriate positioning and brand strategy – communicate the value. To distribute and price the product/service – deliver the value to the customer. References Anderson, Paul F. (1982), ‘Marketing, strategic planning and the theory of the ? rm’, Journal of Marketing, 46 (Spring), 15–26. Day, George (1994), ‘The capabilities of market-driven organizations’, Journal of Marketing, 58 (October), 37–52. Dickinson, Roger, Herbst, Anthony and O’Shaughnessy, John (1986), ‘Marketing concept and consumer orientation’, European Journal of Marketing, 20 (10), 18–23. Dierickx, I. and Cool, K. (1989), ‘Asset stock accumulation and sustainability of competitive advantage’, Management Science, 35, 1504–11. Doyle, Peter (2000), ‘Valuing marketing’s contribution’, European Management Journal, 18 (3), 233–45. Grant, Robert M. (1991), ‘The resource-based theory of competitive advantage: implications for strategy formulation’, California Management Review, Spring, 118. Gronroos, Christian (1984), ‘Internal marketing – theory and practice’, in The American Marketing Association 3rd Conference on Services Marketing, Services Marketing in a Changing Environment Vol. III. Chicago: American Marketing Association. Hambrick, Donald C. and Fredrickson, James W. 2001), ‘Are you sure you have a strategy? ’, Academy of Management Executive, 15 (4), 48–59. Kotler, Philip (2002), Marketing Management: Analysis Planning and Control (8th edn). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. McKittrick, J. B. (1957), ‘What is the marketing management concept? ’, in The Frontiers of Marketing Thought and Science, Frank M. Bass , ed. , Chicago: American Marketing Association. Mitchell, Colin (2002), ‘Selling the brand inside’, Harvard Business Review, 80 (1), 99–105. Moore, James F. (1993), ‘Predators and prey’, Harvard Business Review (May–June), 75–86. Peteraf, M. A. (1993), ‘The cornerstones of competitive advantage: a resource based view’, Strategic Management Journal, 14, 179–91. Scope of strategic marketing Prahalad, C. K. and Hamel, G. (1990), ‘The core competence of the corporation’, Harvard Business Review, 68, 79–91. Teece, D. J. , Pisano, G. and Shuen, A. (1996), Dynamic Capabilities and Strategic Management, Working Paper, 53. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Thompson, Jr, A. A. and Strickland, A. J. III (1996), Strategic Management (9th edn). Chicago: Irwin.

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation free essay sample

Because of the  orthogonality  property of the carrier signals, it is possible to detect the modulating signals independently. In the ideal case  I(t)  is demodulated by multiplying the transmitted signal with a cosine signal: [pic] Using standard  trigonometric identities, we can write it as: [pic] Low-pass filtering  ri(t)  removes the high frequency terms (containing  4? f0t), leaving only the  I(t)  term. This filtered signal is unaffected by  Q(t), showing that the in-phase component can be received independently of the quadrature component. Similarly, we may multiply  s(t)  by a sine wave and then low-pass filter to extract  Q(t). The phase of the received signal is assumed to be known accurately at the receiver. If the demodulating phase is even a little off, it results in  crosstalk  between the modulated signals. This issue ofcarrier synchronization  at the receiver must be handled somehow in QAM systems. The coherent demodulator needs to be exactly in phase with the received signal, or otherwise the modulated signals cannot be independently received. We will write a custom essay sample on Quadrature Amplitude Modulation or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page For example  analog television  systems transmit a burst of the transmitting colour subcarrier after each horizontal synchronization pulse for reference. Analog QAM is used in  NTSC  and  PAL  television systems, where the I- and Q-signals carry the components of chroma (colour) information. Compatible QAM or  C-QUAM  is used in  AM stereo  radio to carry the  stereo difference  information. [edit]Fourier analysis of QAM In the  frequency domain, QAM has a similar spectral pattern to  DSB-SC  modulation. Using the  properties of the Fourier transform, we find that: [pic] here  S(f),  MI(f) and  MQ(f) are the Fourier transforms (frequency-domain representations) of  s(t),  I(t) and  Q(t), respectively. [edit]Quantized QAM [pic] [pic] Digital 16-QAM with example constellation points. Like many digital modulation schemes, the  constellation diagram  is a useful representation. In QAM, the constellation points are usually arranged in a squa re grid with equal vertical and horizontal spacing, although other configurations are possible (e. g. Cross-QAM). Since in digitaltelecommunications  the data are usually  binary, the number of points in the grid is usually a power of 2 (2, 4, 8 . Since QAM is usually square, some of these are rare—the most common forms are 16-QAM, 64-QAM and 256-QAM. By moving to a higher-order constellation, it is possible to transmit more  bits  per  symbol. However, if the mean energy of the constellation is to remain the same (by way of making a fair comparison), the points must be closer together and are thus more susceptible to  noise  and other corruption; this results in a higher  bit error rate  and so higher-order QAM can deliver more data less reliably than lower-order QAM, for constant mean constellation energy. If data-rates beyond those offered by 8-PSK  are required, it is more usual to move to QAM since it achieves a greater distance between adjacent points in the I-Q plane by distributing the points more evenly. The complicating factor is that the points are no longer all the same amplitude and so the  demodulator  must now correctly detect both  phase  and  amplitude, rather than just phase. 64-QAM and 256-QAM are often used in  digital cable  television and  cable modem  applications. In the United States, 64-QAM and 256-QAM are the mandated modulation schemes for  digital cable  (see  QAM tuner) as standardised by the  SCTE  in the standard  ANSI/SCTE 07 2000. Note that many marketing people will refer to these as QAM-64 and QAM-256. In the UK, 16-QAM and 64-QAM are currently used for  digital terrestrial television  (Freeview  and  Top Up TV) and 256-QAM is planned for Freeview-HD. Communication systems designed to achieve very high levels of  spectral efficiency  usually employ very dense QAM constellations. One example is the  ITU-T  G. n  standard for networking over existing home wiring (coaxial cable,  phone lines  and  power lines), which employs constellations up to 4096-QAM (12 bits/symbol). Another example is  VDSL2  technology for copper twisted pairs, whose constellation size goes up to 32768 points. [edit]Ideal structure [edit]Transmitter The following picture shows the ideal structure of a QAM transmitter, wit h a  carrier frequency  f0  and the frequency response of the transmitters filter  Ht: [pic] First the flow of bits to be transmitted is split into two equal parts: this process generates two independent signals to be transmitted. They are encoded separately just like they were in an  amplitude-shift keying  (ASK) modulator. Then one channel (the one in phase) is multiplied by a cosine, while the other channel (in quadrature) is multiplied by a sine. This way there is a phase of 90 ° between them. They are simply added one to the other and sent through the real channel. The sent signal can be expressed in the form: [pic] where  vc[n]  and  vs[n]  are the voltages applied in response to the  nth  symbol to the cosine and sine waves respectively. [edit]Receiver The receiver simply performs the inverse process of the transmitter. Its ideal structure is shown in the picture below with  Hr  the receive filters frequency response  : [pic] Multiplying by a cosine (or a sine) and by a low-pass filter it is possible to extract the component in phase (or in quadrature). Then there is only an  ASK  demodulator and the two flows of data are merged back. In practice, there is an unknown phase delay between the transmitter and receiver that must be compensated by  synchronization  of the receivers local oscillator, i. e. the sine and cosine functions in the above figure. In mobile applications, there will often be an offset in the relative  frequency  as well, due to the possible presence of a Doppler shift proportional to the relative velocity of the transmitter and receiver. Both the phase and frequency variations introduced by the channel must be compensated by properly tuning the sine and cosine components, which requires a  phase reference, and is typically accomplished using a  Phase-Locked Loop (PLL). In any application, the low-pass filter will be within  hr  (t): here it was shown just to be clearer. [edit]Quantized QAM performance The following definitions are needed in determining error rates: M  = Number of symbols in modulation constellation Eb  = Energy-per-bit Es  = Energy-per-symbol =  kEb  with  k  bits per symbol N0  =  Noise  power spectral density  (W/Hz) Pb  =  Probability  of bit-error Pbc  = Probability of bit-error per carrier Ps  = Probability of symbol-error Psc  = Probability of symbol-error per carrier [pic]. Q(x)  is related to the  complementary Gaussian error function  by:  [pic], which is the probability that  x  will be under the tail of the Gaussian  PDF  towards positive  infinity. The error rates quoted here are those in  additive  white  Gaussian noise  (AWGN). Where  coordinates  for constellation points are given in this article, note that they represent a  non-normalised  constellation. That is, if a particular mean average energy were required (e. g. unit average energy), the constellation would need to be linearly scaled. [edit]Rectangular QAM [pic] [pic] Constellation diagram  for rectangular 16-QAM. Rectangular QAM constellations are, in general, sub-optimal in the sense that they do not maximally space the constellation points for a given energy. However, they have the considerable advantage that they may be easily transmitted as two  pulse amplitude modulation  (PAM) signals on quadrature carriers, and can be easily demodulated. The non-square constellations, dealt with below, achieve marginally better bit-error rate (BER) but are harder to modulate and demodulate. The first rectangular QAM constellation usually encountered is 16-QAM, the constellation diagram for which is shown here. A  Gray coded  bit-assignment is also given.

The Inventing Life of Thomas Jefferson

The Inventing Life of Thomas Jefferson Thomas Jefferson was born on April 13, 1743, at Shadwell in Albemarle County, Virginia. A member of the Continental Congress, he was the author of the Declaration of Independence at the age of 33. After American independence was won, Jefferson worked for the revision of the laws of his home state of Virginia, to bring them into conformity with the freedoms embraced by the new Constitution of the United States. Although he had drafted the states Bill for Establishing Religious Freedom in 1777, Virginias General Assembly postponed its passage. In January 1786, the bill was reintroduced and, with the support of James Madison, passed as An Act for Establishing Religious Freedom. In the election of 1800, Jefferson defeated his old friend John Adams to become the third president of the new United States. An inveterate collector of books, Jefferson sold his personal library to Congress in 1815 in order to rebuild the collection of the Congressional Library, destroyed by fire in 1814. The last years of his life were spent in retirement at Monticello, during which period he founded, designed, and directed the building of the University of Virginia. Jurist, diplomat, writer, inventor, philosopher, architect, gardener, negotiator of the Louisiana Purchase, Thomas Jefferson requested that only three of his many accomplishments be noted on his tomb at Monticello: Author of the Declaration of American IndependenceAuthor of the Virginia Statute for Religious FreedomFather of the University of Virginia Thomas Jeffersons Design for a Plow President Thomas Jefferson, one of Virginias largest planters, considered agriculture to be a science of the very first order, and he studied it with great zeal and commitment. Jefferson introduced numerous plants to the United States, and he frequently exchanged farming advice and seeds with like-minded correspondents. Of particular interest to the innovative Jefferson was farm machinery, especially the development of a plow which would delve deeper than the two to three inches achieved by a standard wooden plow. Jefferson needed a plow and method of cultivation that would help prevent the soil erosion that plagued Virginias Piedmont farms. To this end, he and his son-in-law, Thomas Mann Randolph (1768-1828), who managed much of Jeffersons land, worked together to develop iron and mould  board plows that were specifically designed for hillside plowing, in that they turned the furrow to the downhill side. As the calculations on the sketch show, Jeffersons plows were often based on mathematical formulas, which helped facilitate their duplication and improvement.​​​ Macaroni Machine Jefferson acquired a taste for continental cooking while serving as American minister to France in the 1780s. When he returned to the United States in 1790 he brought with him a French cook and many recipes for French, Italian, and other au courant cookery. Jefferson not only served his guests the best European wines, but he liked to dazzle them with delights such as ice cream, peach flambe, macaroni, and macaroons. This drawing of a macaroni machine, with the sectional view showing holes from which dough could be extruded, reflects Jeffersons curious mind and his interest and aptitude in mechanical matters. Other Inventions of Thomas Jefferson Jefferson designed an improved version of the dumbwaiter. While serving as George Washingtons secretary of state (1790-1793), Thomas Jefferson devised an ingenious, easy, and secure method to encode and decode messages: the Wheel Cipher. In 1804, Jefferson abandoned his copying press and for the rest of his life used exclusively the polygraph for duplicating his correspondence.

Evaluate the current streght of evidence for a complimentory therapy Essay

Evaluate the current streght of evidence for a complimentory therapy (Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation TENs for post operative pain management in chi - Essay Example As a result, use of complementary, non-pharmacological therapies for management of pain appears to be an effective and safe option (Zollman & Vickers, 1999). Complimentary therapy has been defined by the Zollman  and Vickers (1999, p.693) as â€Å"group of therapeutic and diagnostic disciplines which exist outside the institutions where conventional health care is taught and provided.† Some of practices of complimentary medicine like chiropractic medicine, transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS), acupuncture etc are increasingly being accepted and used clinically by mainstream medical practitioners (Zollman & Vickers, 1999). Complimentary therapy is now increasingly becoming an important aspect of the health care system in the U.K. a small machine, called the TENS unit is used to transmit electrical currents through the skin to stimulate the underlying nerve endings at or near the area where pain occurs (Hicks, 2006). The electric impulses which are generated by the TENS device are delivered to the area of pain through the sticky pad electrodes, which are placed on the skin in the painful area. Electrical impulses which stimulate the nerve endings at or near the site of pain help in diminishing the pain. intensity and frequency of electric current used by TENS machine, it can be sub-classified into two sub-types: low-intensity (1–2 mA) and high-frequency (50–100 Hz) TENS or high-intensity (15–20 mA) and low-frequency (1–5 Hz) TENS (White et al, 2001).The mechanism of action of TENS is thought to involve both spinal (gate-control theory) and supraspinal theories (release of endogenous opioid like substances). High-frequency and low-intensity TENS is thought to control pain through ‘Melzack and Wall’s theory of spinal gating’ (Erdogan et al, 2005). According to this theory activation of large myelinated afferent nerve

No Topic Required Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

No Topic Required - Assignment Example ly, it shows that Jack Levine may have learnt to make use of several skills such as cubism in accord to both the atmosphere, and the various images that have been noted in his painting. Although, the location of the painting is not very clear, there is a representation of both men and women in the society posing in anticipation of a certain event. One wonders whether the painter may have intended to communicate anything through this painting or was it a way of indicating how art can be useful (Bender 13). What is striking about the painting is how each element that has been noted is so distinct yet it is almost the same colour that was used to make a painting. This is noted from the background, which displays a housing structure, the individuals themselves and their clothing and lastly the dogs. The strokes of the painting display different edges and the colours schemes are distinctly applied to show a clear linkage between the various structures of the body. For example, the arms and the faces of the individual clearly show they are black people. Also notably, the painting shows the mood. The dogs are barking and held by the various individuals. This act of barking in itself portrays agitation, an excitement that is not clear. The faces of the individuals on the painting are also expressionless and looking to the same direction, which probably reaffirms why the dogs could be under some excitement. The surrealism in Birmingham 63 not only does denote how different individuals are at a specific time of the day, but also it brings out some element of surprise all which sums up to our initial thought of the intention of the painter in the first place. Clearly, the painting only shows one side of the coin, which are people going about their daily activities and an events halts them to look in the direction they are currently looking. The kind of dressing by these individuals notes the possibility that they may go about their daily activities (Bender 15). Bender

Use of Technology Essay Example for Free

Use of Technology Essay The information age presents many challenges for those in education and government where there is the need for the whole population to be able to access and use new technologies. This will include use of computers, the internet and digital television which is key in determining and establishing a skilled workforce and empowered citizenry for the twenty first century; the possibility and potential of these new technologies to allow people to learn throughout the life-course is also seen as a ready means of establishing developed countries as a learning society. Governments around the world have come out and set targets and development policies to help all adult technologies – information communication technology- in making these users friendly in their own environments, (Selwyn, Gorard, Furlong, 2006). Despite the sums of money being invested in ICT and education, there is the need for establishing how close the society is in establishing technology based learning societies and the challenges that might be faced along the way. There is also the need to recognize the promise and potential of new technologies, mapping how ICT and ICT-based learning fit with the everyday lives of each individual as well as the ability of research in the community. In this time and age, many of us already have a hand held mobile device, a hand held computing device of some description as well as some form of Internet access in the homes or at the office. As well, the enthusiasts of the power of technology see the need to support and shape our everyday activities proliferate via newspapers, textbooks and television screens. All these are learning avenues and as well these have increased to e-commerce, e-tailing, cybersex, blogging, networked computerized technologies in the nineteenth century revolution; inspired by grand notions of globalization and post modernity, some scholars have taken to portraying adults in the early twenty-first century as living in a plentiful post-physical age where all that is solid melts into bits The importance of learning in information society The prominence of education and learning within the post-industrial, information society analysis was in no small part responsible for the high profile reassessment of education and training by educators and politicians in developing countries over the latter half of the 1990s. In countries such  as the UK, this was infamously embodied in New Labor’s 1977 election commitment to concentrate on education. The information society and knowledge economy agenda were particularly evident in the rise of political favor during the 1990s of the broad concept of lifelong learning, a notion embracing not only the compulsory phases of education but also education throughout adult life. This lifelong learning involves more than a narrow technical adjustment to the organization of educational provision; it is an attempted transformation in learning opportunities in order to meet the implicit demands of the information society/knowledge economy. If it is accepted that the production and distribution of knowledge and information are increasingly significant processes in the determination of global economic competitiveness and development, which are reflected in turn, in economic growth, employment change and levels of welfare, then the capacities of organizations and individuals to engage successfully in the learning process of a variety of kinds is an obvious determinant of economic performance. Policies and usage of ICT in schools For an effective learning environment in schools that incorporate ICT, the use of computers need to have policy frameworks to specify their use and how effective they will be in their use as this will give a general guideline in use as well as maintenance. In South Africa, the proportion of principles indicating the existence of written policies for both the lower and upper education levels were virtually the same, but emphasis was quite different. In almost all the schools too, there was a common vision on ICT as a policy goal that pay attention to norms and values when using services such as the internet; a survey in south Africa revealed that such visions were fully or partially realized both at the upper and the lower levels as other principals reported that developing a common vision was realized as a goal, (Howie, Muller, Paterson, 2005) On the other hand, at the upper level involving mature learning, it is certainly not hard to detect enthusiasms for ICT based technologies within the educational literature, reflecting the proliferation of new technologies such as the computer and internet in adult changing settings. In essence and principle, ICTs are argued to make learning more effective and more equitable, to offer a diverse range of  learning opportunities to a diverse range of adult learners on a suitable, convenient and cost effective basis as technology has been heralded by some to facilitate learning which is eclectic, holistic and flexible. In short, this is to say that ICTs are portrayed as making the wider goals of the knowledge economy and information society, (Howie, Muller, Paterson, 2005) Conclusion According to Law, Yuen Fox, (2011), sustaining or transformative uses of technology do not depend on technology alone, they also depend on the intended use of the technology in the specific educational contexts, often, and specific technologies priorities certain uses and hence can be used more easily for sustaining or transformative purposes. Such prioritization is not deterministic as further, the characteristic that mist influences the choice and deployment of ICT in school education is the pedagogical decision-making of the teacher. This in turn is determined by the curriculum goals and training as well as pedagogical competencies of the teacher, (Law, 2008) Transformative use of technology in schools and education as discussed above are those that are integral to the implementation of innovative pedagogical practices. This involves the changing roles of the teachers, learners and members of the community, and the power relationships among these three groups. The way learning outcomes are assessed and staff performance is appraised also changes, thus challenging the predominant value and reward system inherent in the education system today. In particular, the integration of ICT in learning can be an effective tool in widening education participation, supporting a diversity of educational provision as well as lead to better form and outcomes of adult learning. ? Work Cited Howie, S. J., Muller, A., Paterson, A. (2005). Information and Communication Technologies in. Howie, S. J., Muller, A., Paterson, A. (2005). Information and Communication Technologies in (n.d.): 1-9. Web. Sept.-Oct. 2014. This journal discusses the benefits of using technology in education, as well as the challenges it has created. The writer’s thoroughly researched paper convinces its readers of the vastness of the technological world. South Africa: Reforming Higher Education and Transforming the National System of Innovation. Academia.edu. N.p., n.d. Web. 05 Oct. 2014. This article is written to inform its readers about, the transformation of education with rapid inventions of newer technologies. Nurturing Leadership and Establishing Learning Organizations. Educational Innovations Beyond Technology. N.p., n.d. Web. Oct.-Nov. 2014.Selwyn, N., Gorard, S., Furlong, J. (2006). This research discuses the methods and technological innovations used in learning. Adult Learning in the Digital Age: Information Technology and the Learning Society. N.p., n.d. Web. Oct.-Nov. 2014. This research discusses the use of technology in education, as well as its impact on education.

Materialism in The Dharma Bums and Goodbye, Columbus :: Dharma Bums Essays

Materialism in The Dharma Bums and Goodbye, Columbus    Several works we have read thus far have criticized the prosperity of American suburbia. Jack Kerouac's The Dharma Bums, Philip Roth's Goodbye, Columbus, and an excerpt from Lawrence Ferlinghetti's poem "A Coney Island of the Mind" all pass judgement on the denizens of the middle-class and the materialism in which they surround themselves. However, each work does not make the same analysis, as the stories are told from different viewpoints. The Dharma Bums and "A Coney Island of the Mind" are critiques of materialism by people who have rejected the middle-class ideals. In Goodbye, Columbus, however, Roth makes his point via Neil, a dweller of the lower class who wants to join the prosperous rank of the Patimkin family. The difference is that Kerouac and Ferlinghetti mock the suburbanites, yet pay them little attention while several characters in Goodbye, Columbus are disdainful of the materialism exuded by the Patimkins while feeling excluded from their social class. In The Dharma Bums, Kerouac strengthens his argument for the Zen ideal of poverty and freedom by this criticism of the conformity practiced by the middle-class: ...you'll see if you take a walk some night on a suburban street and pass house after house on both sides of the street each with the lamplight of the living room, shining golden, and inside the little blue square of the television, each living family riveting its attention probably on one show; nobody talking; silence in the yards; dogs barking at you because you pass on human feet instead of wheels. You'll see what I mean, when it begins to appear like everybody in the world is soon going to be thinking the same way and the Zen Lunatics have long joined dust, laughter on their dust lips. (104) Kerouac's point is that freedom doesn't exist in a place where everyone is watching the same thing and thinking the same thing at the same time. Kerouac also reflects on the futile trap of materialism. Japhy discusses "all that crap they didn't really want anyway such as refrigerators, TV sets, cars, at least fancy new cars, certain hair oils and deodorants and general junk you finally always see a week later in the garbage anyway, all of them imprisoned in a system of work, produce, consume, work, produce, consume.

The culture of management versus medicine

Are doctors, good managers? Are they even trained at all to be managers? These are poignant questions that have always arisen from the dichotomy that seems to exist between the arts of medicine for which a doctor is trained and the acts of management to which he is constantly exposed to within the hospital walls. Until a doctor actually seat down to ask the question sincerely, scrutinize his answer properly and task appropriate steps at merging the two indispensable qualities, he would constantly be faced with challenges that can be more Herculean than arriving at differential diagnoses. These two concepts are indispensable in the life of a doctor, and that of any other health professional. They can actually be merged. More than that, really, they must be merged for full and productive society. A medical officer trained in the art of medicine must develop the skills of human relationships: these skills would help him manage the enormous resources that are his disposal for sustaining a functional health care centre. These resources are human resources: the colleagues at work, other members of the medical team which he works such as nurses, physiotherapists, laboratory technologists etc, and even the patients that he attends to. A great deal of effort has to be put in organizing this group of people; it is in doing this that productivity is ascertained, excellence fostered and results become increasing forthcoming. Other health care providers need be aware of this important knowledge. Government officials who are involved in funding the health sector also need to be carried along in this train of Medicine and Management train for holistic and productive funding. It is therefore not far from the truth that the culture of medicine and management need prompt reconciliation. The need for reconciliation is more overwhelming and irresistible as facts abound for its emergency. The differences need to be reconciled as soon as possible. The reconciliation is possible. More than possible, it could be said that it is existing, only that it is silent. The clamor then would be for a formal and gradual or sudden erosion of the apparent dichotomy. This can be achieved through a foundational work. No strong change can be made to a structure without an overhauling of its foundation. The medical school for the health practitioners and the other institutions of higher learning are the major places where this can be achieved. For medical personnel, education among managerial skills in their medical training can be of tremendous impact in achieving this indispensable reconciliation. For managers interested in medicine, an introductory course on medical education would also help. If it is part of curriculum, it gradually becomes a way of life that would span ages. Apart of this consistent courses and seminars would also be of help for all health workers. These would insidiously push this point home. Really, if this is done, there would enhanced health care delivery as more managers of all forms of resources would be produced. With these, and the general Public benefit a lot. SOURCES Harvard Medical School [Medicine and Management] www.kff.org [Kaiser family foundation]

Child Abuse Is A Social Problem - 977 Words

Children advance through a series of life changing events while growing up. Plenty of them are cheerful milestones that are celebrated for instance a birthday or an accomplishment, and then there are those children who are neglected and abused by another family member. When a child is abused or neglected, it not only affects them when they are children, but also affects them when they become functioning adults in society. A sociological social psychology perspective that can be applied to explain why child abuse happens which is the social structure and personality perspective. This perspective can also find a way to solve child abuse in the home. Child abuse is a social problem that has been happening for plenty of decades in our society and with the social structure and personality perspective, one is able to help explain why it happens and how the problem can be solved. The social structure and personality perspective represents the connections between the conditions of society an d the individual. In child abuse, this perspective fits in due to parent having a role as either a mother or father to protect the child from harm and raise them, but if that role fails and the child is abused or neglected by the parents, the child can suffer while growing up. Child abuse happens for multiple reasons that include the child’s parent might have unrealistic expectations that deals with what parenthood is all about and realize it is extremely difficult orShow MoreRelatedThe Social Problem Of Child Abuse Essay1409 Words   |  6 Pagesare a variety of social issues that shape and make the world the way it is today. These social problems can either affect the economy, humans, and neighborhood communities ranging from local or national. One social problem that has increased among humans today is child abuse. 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Description of the Problem/History Child abuse is a form of any sexual activity that a child doesn’t give consent to. Whether it may be sexually or physically if the child is not mentally ready it is still a form of abuse. Child abuse also can lead to differentRead MoreThe Sociological Imagination And The Social Issue Of Child Abuse1492 Words   |  6 Pageswas a concept argued by C. Wright Mills was and still is a valuable tool to help people look at, understand and interpret their everyday lives and social world around them (in which they live). The argued perspective will be discussed through the use of the Sociological Imagination with the Personal Problem of Depression and the Social Issue of Child Abuse with what can be done to solve both of these ‘Dilemmas of Youth’. 2. 1. Sociological Imagination The Sociological Imagination is a form of criticalRead More Sociology: Identifying Social Problems Essay1671 Words   |  7 PagesIdentifying Social Problems The definition of a social problem varies greatly depending on whether an objectivist approach or a constructionist approach is taken. This is because sociologists that adopt these unique perspectives will differ in how they view the nature of a social problem. The objectivist definition of a social problem is perhaps more common sense because it suggests that the essence of social problems lies in objective social conditions and that some conditions areRead MoreEssay about Understanding and Preventing Child Abuse and Neglect1340 Words   |  6 PagesDave Pelzer, A Child Called It   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Child abuse, the physical and/or emotional abuse of a child by a parent, guardian, or other person, is a major problem in the United States. Child abuse, including sexual abuse, beating, and murder have increased and it is believed that many cases go unreported. Another for of child abuse is child neglect, which includes malnutrition, desertion, and inadequate care for a child.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Efforts have increased on the primary prevention of child abuse. This must beRead MoreChild Welfare Essay1260 Words   |  6 PagesEthics and Social Justice | HUM220 A02 Module 5, Assignment 1: Analyzing a Social Policy 6/2013 In the past, more importantly today, many social policies have been created by humans, and can therefore also be destroyed by them as well. Social policies were designed to resolve issues that are â€Å"considered important by a mass of voters, media, and political actors† (Argosy, 2013). Social policy are only the start of help for some, yet they aren’t always